In Macht im System, Niklas Luhmann develops a systems-theoretical concept of power that departs radically from classical notions. Rather than viewing power as a substance to be possessed or a capacity to coerce others, Luhmann frames power as a mechanism for reducing social complexity and enabling communication in differentiated systems.
Luhmann critiques classical power theories for their reliance on outdated premises: that power is causal, conflict-based, hierarchical, and zero-sum. These theories, he argues, treat power as a tangible good; transferable, quantifiable, and centralized; without recognizing the dynamic and interdependent nature of social systems. He points out that traditional models oversimplify human motivations and ignore the complexities of time, contingency, and system-environment relations.

In contrast, Luhmann defines power as a generalized medium of communication, much like money or truth. Power enables actors to influence decisions by offering structured expectations rather than direct coercion. It operates not by eliminating alternatives, but by selectively reducing the range of options considered meaningful or acceptable. In this way, power facilitates decision-making across complex systems.

Power is systemically generated and sustained through mechanisms of differentiation (e.g., roles, hierarchies, organizations) and generalization (across time, topics, and social contexts). Luhmann distinguishes between:

- Power (time-generalized influence),

- Authority (topic-generalized influence), and

- Leadership (socially generalized influence).

Each of these stabilizes expectations and allows for distributed yet coordinated influence across social actors.

Power, more than a force of domination, is an enabling function in systems. It allows for coordination without consensus, integration of diverse interests, and processing of complex decisions under uncertainty.

Power does not exist outside systems; it is a product of system structures that selectively distribute influence. He sees it as inherently relational and dependent on the mutual orientation of actors to system-specific expectations.

As systems grow in complexity, power becomes increasingly formalized through roles, procedures, and membership structures (e.g., organizations or the state). This formalization abstracts power from individual attributes and ties it to structural roles and decision-making rights, making it more stable and predictable. Legitimate power, in this view, arises not from coercion but from the acceptance of system rules and procedures.

Conclusion:
Luhmann’s theory redefines power not as dominance or will, but as a selective communication mechanism embedded within the structure of social systems. Power serves to reduce uncertainty, enable coordinated action, and support the self-organization of complex societies. It is an essential tool for managing the challenges of modernity—not through force, but through structure.

Source: 

Luhmann, N. (2013), Macht im System, Berlin: Suhrkamp.