Vilfredo Pareto’s theoretical sociology posits that history is not a linear progression toward reason or democracy, but rather a continuous replacement of elites. This continuous circulation of elites is driven by deep-seated psychological instincts called residues. Pareto argues that elites rise by possessing superior vigor and specific residues (innovation and consolidation) but inevitably fall when they become humanitarian, soft, and reluctant to use force.

The cycle in Pareto's time is characterised, according to him, by a religious crisis where traditional faiths are replaced by new secular religions like socialism and nationalism. The declining old elite (the bourgeoisie) was losing its will to rule, becoming increasingly humanitarian and specular, while a new elite was emerging from the working class, possessing the energy and discipline necessary to seize power. This transition is often masked by subjective rationalizations (derivations) that frame power struggles as movements for the "common good."

 

Foundational Sociological Laws

Pareto’s analysis rests on several lawlike propositions regarding human behavior and social structure.

(1) The Primacy of Sentiment

The majority of human actions originate not in logical reasoning, but in sentiment. However, because man desires to appear rational, he invents reasons a posteriori to justify his actions. This creates two distinct aspects of any sociological phenomenon:

* Objective Form: The real relations between objects/facts.
* Subjective Form: How the phenomenon is reflected in human consciousness (often distorted, like a curved mirror).

(2) Residues and Derivations

Pareto identifies residues as the relatively stable, non-logical motives for human action. While there are six classes of residues, the two most critical for elite theory are:

1. Class I (The Instinct of Combination): The tendency to innovate, invent, and embark on adventures. In politics and economics, these are "foxes" and "speculators."
2. Class II (The Preservation of Aggregates): The tendency to consolidate, make secure, and maintain traditions. In politics and economics, these are "lions" and "rentiers."

"Derivations" are the external elaborations or "verbal acrobatics" (ideologies, moralities, theories) used to make non-logical actions appear logical.

(3) The Definition of Elite

Pareto treats "elite" as a value-free term. It refers to those who score highest on scales measuring social value or power, such as riches, knowledge, or political influence. The history of man is the history of the rise and fall of these individuals and groups.

 

The Mechanism of Elite Circulation

The stability and longevity of a society depend on the balance and circulation of residues within its ruling class.

The Cycle of Decline and Ascent

Elites do not last. They decline for several reasons:

* Differential Fertility and War: Elite families tend to die out or are killed in higher proportions during conflicts.
* Loss of Vigor: A ruling class often loses the residues that enabled its ascent.
* Refusal to Recruit: A dominant group survives only if it provides opportunities for the "best persons" of other origins to join its ranks. If it becomes a closed caste, it invites revolution.

The Role of Force

A critical factor in the survival of an elite is its willingness to use force.

* Consolidators (Lions): Are more willing to use physical force to preserve the existing order.
* Innovators (Foxes): Prefer persuasion, cajolery, and manipulation.
* Decadence: An elite is doomed when it becomes "humanitarian" and "tenderhearted." Pareto argues that humanitarianism is a sign of "social ossification" and weakness. A small band of skilled insurgents can usually conquer a much larger establishment if the latter is reluctant to employ its police and military power.

Typology of Elites

The following table illustrates the dominant residues in different elite sectors:

Sector Dominant Residue: Class I (Combination/Fox) Dominant Residue: Class II (Preservation/Lion)
Economic "Speculators" (Innovators, risk-takers) "Rentiers" (Fixed incomes, stability-seekers)
Political "Foxes" (Diplomacy, manipulation) "Lions" (Force, tradition, stability)

 

The Decline of the Old Elite (The Bourgeoisie)

Pareto's period was marked by the manifest decline of the old elite, primarily the bourgeoisie.

Indicators of Decay

1. Softness and Milder Sentiments: The declining elite becomes less apt to defend its power. It adopts humanitarian doctrines that justify its own dispossession.
2. Increased Rapacity: Simultaneously, the old elite becomes greedier, increasing unlawful appropriations and usurpations of the national patrimony.
3. Pathological Compassion: The bourgeoisie exhibits a morbid sympathy for criminals and prostitutes, thieves, and murderers, while ignoring the victims. Pareto views this as a sign of anemic social health.

The Religious-Humanitarian Mask

As the old elite declines, it experiences a rise in religious sentiment. This is not necessarily traditional religion but a "secular religion" of humanitarianism. This sentiment weakens the elite's resolve and makes them "prey" for the rising new elite.

 

The Rise of the New Elite

While the old elite declines, a new elite was emerging in Pareto's time, primarily from the working class and its leadership.

Characteristics of the New Elite

* Superior Vigor: They possess the energy and toughness the old elite has lost.
* Organisation and Discipline: Emerging from trade unions and socialist syndicates, they exhibited high moral standards (within their group) and strict regularity (e.g., payment of union dues).
* Use of Ideology: The new elite did not admit it seeks power for itself. Instead, it claimed to lead all the oppressed and declared it pursues the good of the many.

The Subjective vs. Objective Reality of Socialism

* Subjective Perception: Socialism is viewed as a movement for equality, social justice, and world peace.
* Objective Reality: It is the vindication of the humble and weak against the powerful and strong used by a new group of leaders to supersede the old. Once victory is won, the new elite will subjugate the former allies and become just as rigid and exclusive as the old one.

 

The Religious Crisis and Contemporary Waves

Pareto observed a rhythmic wave of sentiment in history, alternating between periods of faith and skepticism.

* The Ascending Period: The world was in an ascending period of religious sentiment. This manifested as socialism in France/Italy, "jingoism" or imperialism in England, and nationalism in the United States and Germany.
* Non-Logical Beliefs: This period was marked by a unrestrainable tendency to assume the form of religion. Even anti-intellectual movements (anti-alcoholism, vegetarianism, asceticism) were manifestations of this rising tide of non-logical, religious feeling, according to Pareto.
* The Failure of Reason: Pareto noted that during these ascending waves, logical or scientific arguments against the prevailing faith (like demonstrating the errors in Marxian value theory) are entirely ineffective. People believe because the sentiment satisfies a psychological need, not because the doctrine is true.

 

Conclusion

Pareto saw the circulation of elites as an inevitable law of history. He saw the bourgeoisie in his time in a state of advanced decline, characterized by humanitarian weakness and the loss of the lion residues. A new elite, invigorated by the religious fervor of socialism and better-organized syndicates, was prepared to replace them. This process, in Pareto's view, is not a victory for the people, but simply the completion of the cycle where a new set of foxes and lions takes the helm, eventually to grow old and be replaced in their turn. (NB: Pareto was appointed to the Italian Senate by Mussolini after he went from being a liberal to becoming a fascist, in order to battle marxism in Italy.)

 

Sources

Pareto, V. (1991, [1901]), The Rise and Fall of Elites - An Application of Theoretical Sociology, New Brunswick/London: Transaction Publishers.